Foddy and Savulescu are sceptical of self-reports that emphasize the ill effects of addiction such as loss of family and possessions, or that claim an absence of pleasure after tolerance sets in. The view they offer is largely in line with the choice model and opposed to a disease model of addiction. But such lives, they claim, can be autonomous and rational. They describe addiction as “strong appetites toward pleasure” and argue that addicts suffer in significant part because of strong social and moral disapproval of lives dominated by pleasure seeking. What is the role and value of pleasure in addiction? Foddy and Savulescu (1) have claimed that substance use is just pleasure-oriented behavior. This can happen in material ways (through housing and work projects), but also by showing trust in their agency and self-efficacy – by assuring them, in particular, that it is possible for them to live the life they value living and be the person they value being. It is important to help addicted persons to connect with their image of their ideal future self, and restore their self-worth. However, change is sometimes set in motion when they can believe that a better life is possible for them, and that they are worth this change for the better.

They often find themselves in a very deprived situation, with very little means to change their lives. The image on the front visualizes the situation many chronic substance dependent people face. This insight into the importance of normative self-control became apparent during the longitudinal qualitative interviews I had with people dependent on alcohol, opioids and amphetamines. We need to look at their self-concept and narrative understanding as well because this determines whether they will use their capacities.

We cannot judge whether someone has impaired self-control solely by looking at the capacities they possess. However, the current theories are incomplete because they largely stay silent on how normative agency is impaired in addiction. I will argue that the current theories provide very valuable information on many of the challenges substance users face when exercising intentional or instrumental self-control. I propose a hierarchical account that shows how the current, seemingly conflicting, theories on addiction and self-control relate to each other. In this thesis I examine the various ways in which self-control can be impaired in addiction, and how self-control can be restored. Addiction is often seen as synonymous with losing self-control.

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